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4. Classic distinctions such as use value (how well something satisfies a need) versus exchange value (what it trades for in the market), and functional value (technical and utility performance) versus welfare value (its contribution to environmental and social well-being) show that value is multidimensional.
5. Lowe, B. H., & Genovese, A. (2022). What theories of value (could) underpin our circular futures? Ecological Economics, 195, 107382. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2022.107382
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10. This includes uncollected and unaccounted waste.
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13. One tool to help address this gap is Net Domestic Product (NDP). NDP adjusts GDP by subtracting the consumption of fixed capital—the wear and tear of physical assets, captured via depreciation as a proxy for the deterioration of buildings, infrastructure, and machinery. In doing so, it offers a more realistic view of the sustainability of economic output, treating it as a two-way process: while new physical capital assets are created, existing ones are simultaneously deteriorated. Although still incomplete, it provides a better indication of how much value an economy generates today while accounting, at least in part, for the impacts on tomorrow’s prosperity. Available data show that, for many countries, NDP is 10–20% lower than GDP once this loss is recognised. Available at: IMF website
14. The System of National Accounts, the internationally agreed framework for compiling measures of economic activity, is working on precisely adjusting NDP to include natural resource depletion. Available at: UNSTATS website
15. This includes all elements of the biosphere, such healthy and productive soils, clean air and water, a stable climate, etc. that support an integrally functional Earth life-support system. [Source]
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19. Farm-to-gate losses, such as harvesting losses, are excluded from the results. For further details on this category of food losses, see source.
20. Depreciation is the economic proxy for the physical deterioration of assets in the economy (consumption of fixed capital).
21. Potentially achievable in a hypothetical ‘what-if’ scenario that does not account for the complex dynamics, enablers, and barriers related to implementation.
22. Valuation using global average prices from the BACI database (further details in the Methodology Document).
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29. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). (2024). Food loss and waste account for 8-10% of annual global greenhouse gas emissions; cost USD 1 trillion annually. Retrieved from: UNFCCC website
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34. Please refer to the Methodology Document for more information on NCS data sources.
35. European Environment Agency (EEA). (2024). Measuring the quality of recycling. Publications Office of the European Union. Retrieved from: EEA website
36. OECD. (2009). Measuring Capital - OECD Manual 2009. Paris. doi:10.1787/9789264068476-en
37. Kirchherr, J., Yang, N.-H. N., Schulze-Spüntrup, F., Heerink, M. J., & Hartley, K. (2023). Conceptualizing the circular economy (revisited): An analysis of 221 definitions. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 194, 107001. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2023.107001
38. Figge, F., & Thorpe, A. S. (2023). Circular economy, operational eco-efficiency, and sufficiency. an integrated view. Ecological Economics, 204, 107692. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2022.107692
39. Vélez-Henao, J. A., & Pauliuk, S. (2023). Material requirements of decent living standards. Environmental Science & Technology, 57(38), 14206–14217. doi:10.1021/acs.est.3c03957
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41. Fanning, A. L., & Raworth, K. (2025). Doughnut of social and planetary boundaries monitors a world out of balance. Nature, 646(8083), 47–56. doi:10.1038/s41586-025-09385-1
42. United Nations Environment Programme Finance Initiative (UNEP FI) and the Global Alliance on Circular Economy and Resource Efficiency (GACERE). (2025). Unlocking circular economy financing—from vision to action. Geneva. Retrieved from: UNEP FI website
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44. Carissimi, M. C., Bin Hameed, H., & Creazza, A. (2024). Circular economy: The future nexus for sustainable and resilient supply chains? Sustainable Futures, 8, 100365. doi:10.1016/j.sftr.2024.100365
45. Geissdoerfer, M., Morioka, S. N., de Carvalho, M. M., & Evans, S. (2018). Business models and supply chains for the circular economy. Journal of Cleaner Production, 190, 712–721. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.04.159
46. European Banking Authority (EBA). (2023). EBA Report: In response to the call for advice from the European Commission on green loans and mortgages. Retrieved from: EBA website
47. European Central Bank (ECB). (2025). Banks have made good progress in managing climate and nature risks – and must continue. Retrieved from: ECB website
48. ECB. (2025). ECB to adapt collateral framework to address climate-related transition risks. Retrieved from: ECB website
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51. Helbling, T. (n.d.). Externalities: prices do not capture all costs. Retrieved from: IMF website
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53. World Bank. (n.d.). What is carbon pricing? Retrieved from: World Bank website
54. True Price Foundation. (n.d.). True price around the world. Retrieved from: True Price Foundation website
55. True Price Foundation. (2025). Remediation guidelines for true pricing. Retrieved from: True Price Foundation website
56. Government of Canada. (2026). Clean Technology Manufacturing (CTM) Investment Tax Credit (ITC). Retrieved from: Government of Canada website
57. European Union. (2022). Council Directive (EU) 2022/542 of 5 April 2022 amending Directives 2006/112/EC and (EU) 2020/285 as regards rates of value added tax. Retrieved from: EUR-Lex website
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